Understanding the Difference Between Therapeutic Frameworks, Models, and Modalities – Part 4
In Part Four of this series, we turn to therapeutic models. If therapeutic frameworks describe a clinician’s overall philosophical orientation and modalities describe the specific methods used in treatment, therapeutic models occupy a slightly different role. Models generally attempt to describe or map a particular psychological process—whether that process involves grief, trauma, emotional regulation, identity development, or behavioral change. They often outline patterns, mechanisms, or stages that researchers and clinicians have observed across many people’s experiences.
That definition, however, only partially captures what therapeutic models do. In practice, models function as conceptual tools. They help clinicians organize complex human experiences into understandable patterns and provide language for discussing what may be happening internally for a client. A model might describe how grief unfolds over time, how traumatic memories are stored in the brain, or how people move through stages of behavioral change. These descriptions are not meant to rigidly define a person’s experience but rather to offer helpful ways of thinking about it.
For clients, these models can also serve an important purpose: normalization and understanding. Many people enter therapy feeling that their reactions are unusual or that they are “doing something wrong.” Seeing a model that describes similar experiences across many individuals can help people recognize that their responses are part of broader patterns in human psychology. At the same time, it is important to remember that models are maps, not exact representations of every individual’s journey. People may recognize themselves strongly in certain aspects of a model and not at all in others.
Some therapeutic models eventually become well known outside of academic psychology and enter the broader cultural conversation. When this happens, the original theory is sometimes simplified or misunderstood. A well-known example is the model commonly referred to as the “stages of grief,” originally proposed by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. While widely cited, the model is often interpreted in ways that differ from the author’s original intentions. In an earlier blog series, we explored this model and other grief frameworks in more depth here:https://www.bluenotepsychotherapy.com/blog-1-1/stages-of-grief-part-1-kubler-ross
Of the three categories discussed in this series—frameworks, modalities, and models—therapeutic models are probably the least necessary for clients to understand before beginning therapy. Most people benefit more from finding a therapist whose approach and relational style feel like a good fit. However, for those who are curious about the ideas that shape psychological theory and research, models provide a fascinating window into how clinicians and researchers attempt to understand the complexity of human experience.
Therapeutic models emerge from decades of research, clinical observation, and theoretical debate. They are continuously refined, expanded, and sometimes challenged as new findings emerge. In many cases, these models both shape and are shaped by the broader theories that guide therapeutic practice. In the sections that follow, we will explore a number of widely used models across different areas of psychology, providing a clearer picture of the ideas that continue to influence modern therapy.
Grief and Bereavement Models:
Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement
Developed by Margaret Stroebe and Henk Schut, the Dual Process Model proposes that grief involves an ongoing oscillation between two types of coping: loss-oriented processes (directly engaging with grief, memories, and emotions related to the loss) and restoration-oriented processes (adjusting to life changes and rebuilding routines). Rather than moving through grief in a straight line, people naturally shift back and forth between these states.
Explored further in a different instalment of our blog series here: https://www.bluenotepsychotherapy.com/blog-1-1/grief-models-part-4-the-dual-process-model
Worden’s Four Tasks of Mourning
J. William Worden conceptualized grief as a set of active psychological tasks rather than stages that simply happen to someone. These tasks involve accepting the reality of the loss, processing the pain of grief, adjusting to life without the deceased, and finding a lasting connection while continuing life.
Explored further in a different instalment of our blog series here:https://www.bluenotepsychotherapy.com/blog-1-1/models-of-grief-part-2-wordens-four-tasks-of-mourning
Continuing Bonds Model of Grief
Developed by Dennis Klass, Phyllis Silverman, and Steven Nickman, this model challenged the earlier idea that healthy grief requires detaching from the deceased. Instead, it suggests that many people maintain ongoing psychological and emotional connections with loved ones after death, such as through memories, values, rituals, or internal dialogue.
Explored further in a different instalment of our blog series here: https://www.bluenotepsychotherapy.com/blog-1-1/grief-models-part-3-continuing-bonds-and-meaning-reconstruction
Meaning Reconstruction Model of Grief
The Meaning Reconstruction Model, developed by Robert Neimeyer, emphasizes the importance of rebuilding meaning and identity after loss. When someone dies, it can disrupt the narratives people hold about their life, relationships, and future. This model suggests that grieving often involves reconstructing a coherent life story that can incorporate the loss. Meaning-focused approaches are often used with individuals experiencing complicated grief, traumatic loss, or identity disruption following bereavement.
Two-Track Model of Bereavement
Developed by Simon Rubin, the Two-Track Model proposes that healthy adaptation to loss involves two simultaneous dimensions: overall psychological functioning and the continuing relationship with the deceased. Rather than viewing grief only in terms of emotional distress, this model evaluates how a person’s daily functioning, relationships, and identity are affected while also examining the evolving internal relationship with the lost person. It is particularly useful in clinical settings when assessing complicated or prolonged grief.
Trauma Models
Adaptive Information Processing Model (AIP)
Developed by Francine Shapiro alongside EMDR therapy, the Adaptive Information Processing model proposes that traumatic experiences can become maladaptively stored in memory networks when the nervous system becomes overwhelmed. These memories may remain fragmented and easily triggered because they were never fully integrated with other adaptive memory systems. Therapies based on this model aim to help the brain reprocess and integrate these memories, allowing them to become part of normal autobiographical memory rather than a source of ongoing distress.
Polyvagal Theory
Polyvagal Theory, developed by Stephen Porges, explores how the autonomic nervous system regulates safety, threat detection, and social engagement. The model describes three primary physiological states: a socially engaged state associated with safety, a mobilized fight-or-flight response, and a shutdown or immobilization state. This framework has influenced many trauma-informed and somatic therapies by highlighting how emotional experiences are closely tied to physiological states of the nervous system.
Window of Tolerance Model
The Window of Tolerance concept, popularized by Dan Siegel, describes the optimal zone of emotional and physiological arousal in which a person can process experiences effectively. When individuals are pushed outside this window, they may experience hyperarousal (anxiety, panic, agitation) or hypoarousal (numbing, shutdown, dissociation). Many trauma-informed therapies focus on helping clients expand this window so they can tolerate difficult emotions while remaining regulated enough to process them.
Structural Dissociation Model of Trauma
Developed by Onno van der Hart, Ellert Nijenhuis, and Kathy Steele, the Structural Dissociation model explains trauma through the idea that severe or chronic trauma can lead to divisions within the personality system. Parts of the personality may remain focused on daily functioning, while other parts carry traumatic memories and defensive responses. This model is often used in the treatment of complex trauma and dissociative disorders and informs several parts-oriented therapeutic approaches.
Three-Stage Model of Trauma Recovery
Psychiatrist Judith Herman proposed a widely influential three-stage model for trauma recovery consisting of safety and stabilization, remembrance and mourning, and reconnection with life. The model emphasizes that trauma recovery is not only about revisiting traumatic memories but also about establishing safety, rebuilding trust, and reconnecting with relationships and meaningful life activities. It remains a foundational framework for trauma-informed therapy.
Cognitive and Behavioral Models
Cognitive Model of Depression
Developed by Aaron Beck, this model proposes that depression is strongly influenced by patterns of negative thinking about the self, the world, and the future—often called the “cognitive triad.” These patterns shape emotional experience and behavior, reinforcing depressive symptoms. Cognitive therapies aim to identify and challenge distorted thinking patterns and develop more balanced ways of interpreting experiences.
ABC Model of Emotion (REBT)
The ABC Model was developed by Albert Ellis as part of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. The model suggests that emotional reactions are shaped not simply by events but by the beliefs people hold about those events. “A” represents an activating event, “B” the beliefs about that event, and “C” the resulting emotional and behavioral consequences. Therapy focuses on identifying and challenging irrational or unhelpful beliefs to create healthier emotional responses.
Schema Model / Schema Therapy Model
Developed by Jeffrey Young, Schema Therapy expands on cognitive therapy by focusing on deeply ingrained emotional patterns called schemas that develop during childhood. These schemas shape how individuals interpret relationships, expectations, and self-worth. Schema therapy is commonly used with individuals who experience long-standing relational difficulties, personality disorders, or persistent patterns that have not responded well to traditional cognitive therapy alone.
Learned Helplessness Model
Psychologist Martin Seligman developed the Learned Helplessness model after observing how repeated experiences of uncontrollable stress can lead individuals to stop attempting to change their circumstances. Over time, this perceived lack of control can contribute to symptoms associated with depression, anxiety, and trauma. The concept has influenced therapies that focus on restoring a sense of agency and empowerment.
Emotion and Regulation Models
Process Model of Emotion Regulation
Developed by James Gross, the Process Model describes how individuals regulate emotions at different stages of emotional experience. Strategies can occur before emotions fully develop (such as changing a situation or shifting attention) or after emotions arise (such as reinterpreting a situation or suppressing emotional expression). The model has informed research and clinical work related to anxiety, depression, and stress management.
Three-Circle Model of Emotion Regulation
Developed by Paul Gilbert as part of Compassion Focused Therapy, this model describes three major emotional systems: the threat system, the drive system, and the soothing system. Psychological distress often emerges when the threat system becomes overactive while the soothing system remains underdeveloped. Compassion-focused approaches aim to strengthen the soothing system and cultivate self-compassion as a regulatory resource.
Emotion Transformation Model
Developed by Leslie Greenberg within Emotion-Focused Therapy, this model suggests that emotional change often occurs through new emotional experiences rather than through insight alone. For example, feelings of shame may shift when individuals experience compassion or self-acceptance. Therapy guided by this model focuses on helping clients access, process, and transform core emotional experiences.
Attachment and Relationship Models
Attachment Theory / Attachment Model of Relationships
Developed by John Bowlby and expanded through the research of Mary Ainsworth, Attachment Theory explores how early caregiving relationships shape patterns of security, trust, and emotional regulation. Attachment patterns often influence adult relationships, emotional coping, and vulnerability to mental health difficulties. Many modern relational and trauma-informed therapies draw heavily on attachment theory.
Internal Working Models of Attachment
Also developed by John Bowlby, the concept of internal working models refers to the mental representations people form about themselves, others, and relationships based on early attachment experiences. These internal templates influence expectations in later relationships and shape how individuals interpret closeness, conflict, and emotional support.
Attachment Injury Model
Developed by Sue Johnson within Emotionally Focused Couples Therapy, the Attachment Injury Model describes how certain relational events—such as betrayal, abandonment, or moments of perceived rejection—can create lasting disruptions in attachment security within a relationship. Therapy focuses on helping partners process the injury and rebuild emotional trust.
Identity and Development Models
Psychosocial Development Model
Psychologist Erik Erikson proposed a developmental model consisting of eight stages across the lifespan, each involving a key psychological task or conflict such as trust versus mistrust or identity versus role confusion. Successful resolution of these stages contributes to healthy personality development and emotional functioning.
Narrative Identity Model
Developed by Dan McAdams, the Narrative Identity Model suggests that people construct internal life stories that integrate past experiences, present identity, and future aspirations. Psychological distress can occur when life events disrupt this narrative or make it difficult to maintain a coherent sense of self. Narrative-oriented therapies often help clients reshape or reinterpret their life stories.
Self-Discrepancy Theory
Proposed by E. Tory Higgins, this model suggests that emotional distress can arise when there is a gap between different versions of the self—such as the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self. When these self-representations diverge significantly, individuals may experience emotions such as shame, anxiety, or guilt.
Psychotherapy Process Models
Transtheoretical Model of Change (Stages of Change)
Developed by James Prochaska and Carlo DiClemente, this model describes behavioral change as a series of stages, including precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. The model is widely used in addiction treatment, health psychology, and behavioral interventions to match therapeutic strategies to a person’s readiness for change.
Common Factors Model of Psychotherapy
Researchers such as Michael Lambert and Bruce Wampold proposed that many forms of therapy work not only because of their specific techniques but also due to shared elements, including the therapeutic relationship, client expectations, and the therapist’s empathy and responsiveness. This model highlights the importance of relational and contextual aspects of therapy.
Memory Reconsolidation Model of Therapeutic Change
Researchers including Bruce Ecker have explored how psychotherapy may create change through the process of memory reconsolidation. When emotionally charged memories are reactivated under certain conditions and paired with new emotional experiences, the brain can update the original memory network. Many experiential therapies are thought to facilitate change through this mechanism.
Final Thoughts
What these examples illustrate is that therapeutic models can operate at many different levels. Some attempt to explain underlying biological or psychological mechanisms, others describe common human experiences such as grief or identity development, and still others provide conceptual structures that inform particular therapeutic approaches. Because of this, models are less about prescribing a specific intervention and more about offering ways to understand patterns in human experience.
Within the broader field of psychology, models help organize research and theory by giving clinicians and researchers shared language for discussing complex processes. In the therapy room, they can sometimes serve as helpful reference points for understanding what a client may be experiencing or for framing possible directions for treatment. At times, therapists may also share aspects of a model with clients when it can help bring clarity or normalization to a confusing experience.
At the same time, models are best understood as guides rather than rigid explanations. Human lives rarely unfold exactly according to any single theory, and experienced clinicians typically draw from multiple perspectives rather than relying exclusively on one model.
In the next and final part of this series, we will step back and bring together everything discussed so far about therapeutic frameworks, modalities, and models, and offer some broader thoughts on how people can navigate these ideas when looking for a therapist who feels like the right fit.